The emigration from Norway to America is a dramatic part of Norway's history. Emigration to America could never have taken place without a sufficient means of transportation. This article focuses mainly on the transatlantic journey. It is the story of how the Norwegians going to America in the time between 1825 and 1925 would travel. It also gives some insight to the amazing development in how ships were constructed and the transportation arranged to meet the demands of the increasing number of people on the move. Even though this is about the experience of Norwegian emigrants, the experiences and conditions of travel will be much the same regardless of the nationality.

On July 5, 1825, the sloop Restauration set sail from Stavanger to New York. On board the overfilled vessel was a party of 52 persons including members of the crew, known to us today as the "sloopers." When the sloopers arrived at New York on October 9 -- following a fantastic journey -- their number was increased to 53. Although they were not the first Norwegians to emigrate to America, 1825 marks the beginnings of organized emigration. About 800,000 Norwegians were to follow in their wake during the next 100 years. It is anticipated that about 30 000 000 North Americans are in some way of Norwegian descent.

The first ships used to freight passengers were originally built for cargo. This means in reality that the passengers were placed in the cargo hold, rebuilt to carry passengers. The passengers were lodged between decks, often just called "tween-decks" or "steerage". The origin of the expression "steerage", comes from "steers" (cattle), and indicates that the emigrants traveled under the same conditions, and on the same decks as was used for transporting the cattle. (Often with very little cleaning in between) Temporary quarters were set up in the ships that did not have a permanent between-deck. To get down to the between-decks the passengers often had to use ladders, and the passageway down between the hatches could be both narrow and steep. The manner in which the ships were equipped could vary since there were no set standards for this. It was necessary that the furnishings could be easily removed, and not cost more than absolutely necessary. As soon as the ships had set the passengers on land, the furnishings were discarded and the ship prepared for return cargo to Europe.

Newspaper announcement from "Den Vestlandske Tidende" March 30th 1852; Passenger accommodation from Grimstad to Quebec. With the ship Nordpolen, Capt. C. Olsen which is scheduled to sail from Grimstad to Quebec with passengers there are still available space. The ships steerage is 7 feet high, and has a permanent between deck. The ship also has big cabins and a separate ward. It is fitted in the most comfortable way for the passengers and can take both cabin and steerage passengers. More information can be obtained with Gardener J. J. Tørjesen at Næss ironworks, Lund and Kummelhoff in Arendal and at Sheriff Throndsen and undersigned here in Grimstad. Signed by M. S Tveten.

The ceiling height of the between-deck was usually 6 to 8 feet. The bunks, made of rough boards, were set up along both sides of the ship. The bunks were ordinarily positioned so the passengers lay in the direction of the ship, from fore to aft, but on a few ships the bunks were placed transversely or thwartships. The latter caused passengers greater discomfort in rough seas. The larger ships might also have an additional row of bunks in the middle. On these ships there was only a small corridor between the bunks. Each bunk was intended to hold from three to six persons, and these were often called family bunks. On the emigrant vessel Drafna, which sailed with emigrants in 1852, the bunks were large enough to hold five persons. The ship was not filled to capacity, however, so there were no more than three to four persons in each bunk. The passengers on that voyage felt they had had ample space. The bunks were usually double-deck beds, i.e., there was one bunk on top of the other. Ads announced that on board the Bolivar, which sailed in 1852, there was enough headroom between the bunks that an adult could sit up in bed. The best place to have a bunk was amidships, because the rocking of the boat was felt less there. The bunks had straw mattresses or mattresses stuffed with straw. The emigrants had to bring their own pillows, blankets, animal hides and other necessary bedclothes. Contemporary sources report that lice and fleas thrived in this environment.

The between deck of the Superior [Skilling Magazin 1866]

Daily life onboard consisted of various routines and duties. When weather permitted, the passengers were usually up on deck. Some were busy cleaning and others with games to pass the time. On the Sjofna in 1852, the women were occupied with cooking, sewing and knitting. Some had to look after the children and care for the sick. The captain usually held Sunday services on deck. On ordinary weekdays, there was often dancing on deck. Activities depended on weather conditions, but music instruments could be put to good use even when the weather was bad. When a ship came into heavy fog off the coast of Newfoundland, all the instruments on board were used to make as much sound as possible so as to be heard by other ships. On Fædres Minde in 1853, rules were posted stating what was permitted and what was not. Some captains were strict while others cared little about what the passengers did. While all types of games and entertainment were allowed and encouraged on some ships, such activities were forbidden on others. With so many people gathered in a limited space, rules regarding conduct were no doubt necessary. These rules set boundaries for daily life on board. The following is an excerpt from a set of rules printed in Drammen:

Ship Rules: 1. The fire will be lit on the fire place (stove) each morning at 6 o'clock a.m., and every passenger not hindered by sickness or some other valid reason shall get up no later than 7 o'clock a.m. 2. The fire shall be put out at 8 o'clock p.m. and passengers must be in their bunks by 10 o'clock p.m. 3. The deck in the passengers' quarters and under the bunks shall be swept each morning before breakfast, and the sweepings be thrown overboard. Once a week the deck in the passengers' quarters shall be scraped. 4. Each morning before the fire is lit, necessary fuel and water will be distributed to the passengers. This task, and cleaning of the deck and the cabins on deck, will be carried out on a daily basis by a suitable number of men on a rotation basis. This group is also to check the cleanliness of the passengers and adherence to all other regulations. 5. Lamps will be lit in passengers' quarters after dark and be kept burning until 10 o'clock in the evening. 6. Tobacco smoking is not permitted below deck, nor is the use of open flame or hay or straw permitted. 7. All cooking utensils must be washed after use and always be kept clean. 8. All bedding must be taken up on deck once or twice a week and be aired out, and the bunks cleaned each time this is done. 9. Clothing may not be washed or hung up to dry below deck, but each week, as conditions permit, a day will be determined for general washing. 10. All passengers who bring spirits or other alcoholic beverages on board are obligated upon embarking the ship to hand over the same for safekeeping. These passengers may receive a reasonable daily portion. Passengers are forbidden to have gunpowder in their possession, and this as well as guns or other weapons brought on board must be placed in safekeeping with ship's officers. These will be returned to passengers at journey's end. 11. Cards or dice are not allowed on board since these can easily lead to quarrels and disagreements. Passengers should treat each other with courtesy and respect. No quarrelsome or disputatious behavior will be tolerated. 12. No seaman is allowed on the passenger deck, unless he has received orders to do specific work. Nor is any passenger, under any circumstances whatsoever, allowed in the cabin of a crewmember or the ship's galley. It is not permitted to drill holes, do any cutting, pound nails or do any other kind of damage to the ship's beams, boards or decks. 13. It is expected of the passengers that they appear on deck each Sunday in clean clothing and that they, as much as circumstances permit, keep the Sabbath. 14. All manner of games and entertainment are permitted and recommended as contributing to the maintenance of good health during a long journey. Personal cleanliness also contributes a good deal to this and is therefore highly recommended to the passengers. 15. Passengers must not speak to the man at the helm. 16. It is taken for granted that every passenger is obligated to obey the orders of the Captain in all respects.

The transatlantic crossing was hard for the infants and small children. In spite of this it was not uncommon for women to give birth on the voyage. This could be dangerous to both the mother and child, due to the rough conditions aboard the ships. Many women died in labor, and even more of the children did not live to ever see land. The majority of those who died on the sailing ships were infants and small children.

There was a custom of often naming children born onboard ships after the ship, captain or the ocean. On the Olaf in 1866 a woman gave birth to a boy child and right afterwards the Captain and the Doctor asked that he be named Olaf in honor of the ship. On the Moss in 1869 a child was born and named Martin Atlantus Olsen. He was born on June 20th, but sadly he died on July 3rd, shortly after the ship had arrived to the quarantine station at Grosse Île. On the Victoria sailing in 1861 there were a lot of deaths, and a ships carpenter was busy building coffins for the many children who died. A passenger later told how sad it was to see the little coffins out on the seas as they sailed away. On that voyage a girl was born at sea and given the name Anna Victoria after the ship. On the Heros sailing in 1868, the father of a child that died took his food chest for the coffin. The child of a relative had also died, and the two little bodies were laid together and buried in the ocean. The Ske family sailing on the Refondo in 1867 lost 4 children from pneumonia in one week. There were a lot of deaths on that voyage. On the Colonist departing from Drammen in 1870 the daughter of Peder A. Mjör was given the name Atlanta Pedersdatter. A child that was born on the Juno in 1849 was baptized on July the 12th. The Captain had demanded that the child was to be called after the ship, and he was named Lars Juno Nilsen. On the Marie in 1864 the daughter of Mads Knudsen Fauske was named Atlanthea Norgea Madsdatter. An other girl born on the Balder in 1865 was named Laura Attelanta. There are numerous other examples on this practice.

The emigrant vessel Laurdal cleared for departure from Porsgrunn. The Laurdal made a total of ten voyages with emigrants from Porsgrunn to Quebec between 1863 and 1872, carrying a total of about 3000 emigrants across the Atlantic. A girl who was born during a crossing in 1868 was named Laura Atlanta after both the ship and the ocean. It was not uncommon to name children born on the voyage after the ship, captain, or the ocean it self. The Laurdal was built in Maine in 1850 with a tonnage of about 630 register tons. The Laurdal could carry about 350 passengers at most and had space for some cabin passengers. The captain on all these voyages was J. L. Petersen. The ship had a crew of 16.

The emigrants were also advised to take along equipment, such as a water pail, (the size according to the needs of each family, about 3 quarts a day per person) cooking pot, coffee kettle and dishes and eating utensils. They had to prepare their own food on the ship's galleys placed up on deck. Often there were no more than a couple of these to be shared by all the passengers. The lines for preparing food could easily become long, when there were several hundred passengers. There are reports about ships where some passengers never made it to the stoves -- it was a matter of the survival of the fittest. Daily rations of wood and water were included in the price of the ticket. The emigrants on board the sail ships were completely dependent on wind and weather. If the weather was bad, the journey could take much longer than anticipated. There were several occasions when the emigrants ran out of food and water before they arrived in port. On board the bark Fauna in 1868, they were about to run out of water and the daily ration was down to one glass per person. If they were lucky they might meet other ships that had something to sell, but the prices were often very high. If necessary, they might anchor off land somewhere, like the bark Napoleon that had to go to St. Johns, Newfoundland. The banks off the coast of Newfoundland had great quantities of fish, however, which came to the rescue of many.

Contents of the "Rosemåled" Chest The chest with food supplies that Anders Nilssen Kloster (1843-1936) and his wife Madel Magdela Handsdatter Lie (1843-1889) from Kloster gård at Halsnøy brought along on the bark Erling Skjalgson in 1869:   Kjue-kjue leivar flat brø. (400) 76 pund smør. (butter) Tolv saua. (twelve legs of mutton) 1 tønne kavring (cask of hardtack) 2 tønne nøteknekker (crackers) ½ anker brennevin (cask of brandy) 2 kvart rom (quarts of rum) 1 kvart mjø (mead) ½ anker sur melk (sour milk) 8 gallon primost (cheese)

Sanitary conditions on board "Our Captain was a hard and impulsive man, but even so I believe he had the welfare of the passengers at heart, especially their health, since he was strict about cleanliness"

Attempts were made on many of the ships to maintain fairly good hygiene. The passengers had to assist with daily cleaning on many of the ships. Many passengers told about strict captains who rigidly enforced cleanliness. On the Drafna under the command of Captain Eckersberg, the between-deck was scraped twice a week. On the Laurvig in 1854, two passengers were assigned responsibility for cleaning each day. But even though the decks were washed, not all the passengers were just as careful about washing themselves. The lack of water may be partly to blame for this, but many were not accustomed to this from home. Rainwater was collected for all types of washing.

Most travel accounts from the days of the sail ships tell about seasickness. There was no medicine for this, but there were a number of home remedies. On the bark Ægir in 1837, the passengers were treated with gruel. Captain Eckersberg on the Drafna in 1852 attempted to keep the passengers above deck as much as possible, especially those who were seasick. There are similar accounts from other ships. But there were other illnesses that were far worse, and most ships did not have a physician on board. The most common illnesses were cholera, typhoid fever, measles, chicken pox and dysentery. Typhoid fever broke out on the Amelia in 1862, and 49 of the 280 passengers died during the crossing. 170 passengers were placed in quarantine at a hospital at the quarantine station on Grosse Île. This was an island outside of Quebec, where all the ships were inspected before given permission to proceed to port. Yet another 31 passengers died at the hospital. On the Laurvig in 1853, the hatches were closed for several weeks due to bad weather. Dysentery spread from bunk to bunk and 19 passengers perished. On the Maple Leaf in 1861, a fever broke out that resulted in the death of 21 passengers, 19 of them were children.

During the entire period of the sail ships between 1825 and 1875, no Norwegian emigrant vessel sank resulting in the loss of life. However, a few were very close, like the brig Frihandel in 1854, she was wrecked and sank, but the 17 passengers where rescued by the American ship "St. George" and arrived to New York on December 10th. In 1864 the Marie of Bergen, was hit by a hurricane, and lost its rig. They managed to reach Shields in England for repairs, but had a dreadful voyage across the Atlantic. In 1868 the Hannah Parr came close to disaster after departing from Christiania. She had to go to Limerick, Ireland for repairs after serious damage from a fierce storm. Due to all the problems it was to be 107 days before her passengers disembarked in America. In 1873 the Valkyrien collided with a brigantine off Goodwin Sands, just about as she was entering the Channel. She just about managed to go to Dover for repairs.

However, the voyage was continued inland after the passengers disembarked from the ship, and great many dangers waited on the rest of the journey. In 1852 a group of Norwegian emigrants made it across the Atlantic on the bark Argo. On the inland voyage 67 of them perished in the disaster on Lake Erie, when the steamer Atlantic collided with the Ogdensburg and sank.

The great mortality among the emigrants certain years was the result of illnesses on board. Illness could most often be attributed to poor hygiene. The majority of those who succumbed were small children and elderly persons who had little resistance. On the bark Nordlyset, which was under the command of Captain Hansen from Christiania, 29 of the passengers perished in 1861, most of them children. The Nordlyset had a tonnage of 330 register tons, and was carrying 303 passengers. When they got into bad weather the hatches had to be closed much of the time. Conditions for the passengers were reported to be very bad in the sealed off, dark compartment. In the year 1862 many Norwegian ships encountered problems due to bad weather. In addition to carrying too many passengers, the crossing took longer time. The average crossing time this year was 63 days, ten days longer than the all over average between 1840 and 1874. This resulted in a great deal of sickness on board. A total of 184 Norwegian emigrants died on the way to Quebec and 42 died in quarantine following their arrival. These 226 deaths represent about four percent of all the Norwegian emigrants who traveled via Quebec that year. Those who died at sea were buried at sea, either wrapped in canvas or placed in coffins constructed by the ship's carpenter. There was often a shortage of lumber for coffins on board ships where there were many deaths, and there were times when two persons were placed in the same coffin with feet in opposite directions. If there were no minister on board, the captain would read a funeral service before the bodies were sunk into the ocean. On the brig Incognito sailing in 1852, the story says that there were a lot of deaths, and sharks were following the ship. Grieving parents had to watch the sharks attack the body of their deceased child as it entered the water.

The cost of passage with a sail ship could vary. In 1839, passengers sailing with the Emilie paid 39 speciedaler from Drammen to New York. In 1843, Captain Johan Gasmann of the Salvator made up the following list of expenses an emigrant could expect to pay:

The journey from Norway to Quebec: 20 speciedaler (abbreviation = Spd..)
Landing fee in New York: $1.75
Transportation from New York to the interior: $9.00
Food for 12 to 14 days: $5.00

For those who traveled via Havre, we have information that the cost from there to New York was 50 Fr. When ships began sailing to Quebec, the prices got lower. In 1866 the cost of passage with the Argonaut was 15 spd. per adult, 8 spd. per child between the ages of 7 and 14, and 5 spd. per child between the ages of 1 and 6. Children under age 1 traveled free. This gradient of the fee in to age groups was quite common, and maybe it is the explanation why we find so very few children at the age of 2 or 15 years on the passenger lists. In addition to the passage fee, there was a landing fee of 1 spd. per head. Passenger traffic was lucrative business for the shipping companies. Many shipowners turned the other way regarding a safe number of passengers. The more passengers, the greater the profit. This, combined with good prospects for return cargo, resulted in the establishment of a passenger trade. More and more of the ship-owners specialized in this traffic. A number of ships carried cargo in addition to passengers, but most carried ballast. Restrictions were defined as to the allowable number of passengers. The US Passenger Act of 1819 regarding the transporting of passengers stated that no ship could carry more than two passengers for each 5 register tons. If the number of passengers exceeded this limit, the captain would have to pay a fine of 150 dollars for each illegal passenger.

Prior to 1850 most Norwegian ships headed for North America sailed to the port of New York. From 1850 to about 1854, more and more ships sailed to Quebec. In 1855, only the bark Kong Sverre from Bergen set sail for New York, while the other Norwegian emigrant vessels sailed to Quebec. There were several factors behind this, but the revoking of the British Navigation Act in 1849 was an important one. The revoking of this act made it possible to return home with lucrative cargoes. Another contributing factor appears to have been that the authorities in Quebec were not so particular about the number of passengers on board foreign ships. This made it possible for the shipping companies to carry a greater number of passengers to Quebec than they could to New York. The crowded ships worsened hygienic conditions exposing the passengers to more illness. This hastened the introduction of a new law in Norway. On 23 May 1863, a law was passed restricting the number of passengers on board ships headed for foreign destinations. The most important consequence of this law was that no vessel could carry more than 1 adult for each 2 register tons. The emigrants were to be ensured a minimum of space, and cargo was not to be stored on the same deck as the passengers.

Much was done to promote travel with the emigrant ships. The Argonaut sailed in 1866 from Christiania to Quebec with 356 passengers. The agent responsible for booking passages published advertisements in 12 different newspapers: Morgenbladet, Aftenposten, Aftenbladet, Avertisementsbladet, Oplandske Blade, Hedemarken Amtstidende, Ringerikes Ugeblad, Kristians. Amtstidende, Hamars Budstikke, Lillehammers Tilskuer and Østerdølen. The agent's accounts reveal that there was good money to be made even though the price was low. The total fare for all the passengers amounted to 4 391 spd. The agent deducted the price of the newspaper ads, landing fees, telegrams, fees, a 5% commission for himself, and a 5% commission for Captain Plade Stranger. In addition, Lars Larsen from Vardal had earned free passage for signing up ca. 50 passengers. Adding the income of the return cargo from Quebec to Europe, this was a very profitable business transaction. It was not uncommon that the shipowners had an agreement with local businessmen, or other persons who were locally well known, that they sign up passengers.

Newspaper announcement "Ringeriges Ugeblad" 13. Feb. 1866. "If a sufficient number of passengers signs on, the copper hooded, 1st classed Frigate Ship, "Argonaut" c. 300 Commercielæster, (Norwegian Commercial lasts) mastered by Capt. Plade Stranger, will sail from Christiania to Quebec in the middle of April. The ship is a good sailor, and an excellent passenger ship. With its bright spacey and 7 feet high between deck it fulfills all expectations of passenger accommodation nowadays. Enrolling of passengers and further information at G. F. Rielsen's in Christiania.

In 1866, when the American Civil War was over, many Norwegians emigrated to America. The end of the Civil War in many ways marked the start of what would later be known as mass migration from Norway. The growing number of emigrants created a need for increased transatlantic transport. The industrialization of England resulted in a need for the quick exchange of information, goods and raw materials between continents. This led to the development of several large shipping lines such as the Cunard Line, the White Star Line, the Allan Line, the National Line and the Anchor Line, to mention several. These shipping companies turned to the use of steamships in the 1860s that could carry passengers and cargo quickly across the ocean. The use of steam was also due, in part, to tough competition for postal contracts. These contracts were lucrative, but government officials placed strong demands on regularity and speed. With the rise of mass emigration, the shipping lines naturally concentrated more on passenger traffic.

The S/S Helvetia of the National Line, was built in England in 1864. It made the crossing between Liverpool and New York up to 1891. The ship had a tonnage of 3 318 gross tons, and had a length of 371,5 feet and a width of 41,2 feet. It was rebuilt in 1872 and lengthened to carry more passengers. There was space for a total of 72 cabin passengers and 1 200 passengers in the steerage. The ship is a typical example of how steam was combined with sails. The top speed of the S/S Helvetia was 10 knots. The company advertised large, light and airy quarters, which were heated with steam during the winter months. [old tradecard]

Passengers on a sailship could never know how long the journey would take. They were subject to wind and weather. The average crossing time on a sailing ship from Norway to America was 53 days. A fifty day journey below the deck of a sailship was no pleasure trip. The emigrants who crossed the Atlantic by sailship were largely left up to chance. According to the statistics the slowest sailing ships used about 100 days on the crossing, while the fastest voyages were down to about 25 days from Norway to America. Even though passage on a steamship in 1867 was about three times more than passage on a sailship, more and more chose to travel by steam each year. The steamship companies could tempt passengers with a safer and quicker crossing, with food included in the price. It did not take long before the sailships lost out in competition with the steamships. In 1874 the last two sailships sailed from Norway to Quebec. There were no Norwegian steamship companies to compete for passengers to America. However, an attempt was made in Bergen to establish a Norwegian line. The Norwegian American Steamship Co. maintained a direct steam ship connection between Norway and New York in the 1870s. But the service lasted only from 1871 to 1875, when it was discontinued because it was not profitable. This was partly due to a sharp decrease in the number of emigrants about the year 1874. Emigration took place in waves and at this time there was a decline. When emigration was finally on the upswing again, no Norwegian shipowners were willing to take a chance. In Denmark, on the other hand, the Thingvalla Line was established in 1880. The company aimed its marketing also toward Norwegians and could offer direct connections between Copenhagen, Christiania (later Oslo), Christiansand (Kristiansand) and New York.

The large foreign companies quickly built up their own network of agents across the whole country. Strong competition grew between the companies, which resulted in reduced prices. At times the agents carried on quite intensive advertising for the lines they represented. During the early years, the advertising campaigns were often characterized by negative comments about competitors.

Advert for the Allan Line in the Trondheim Newspaper "Trondhjems Adressecontors efterretninger"

This soon brought the whole business into discredit. The price war had also reached a level that was about as much as the companies could stand. As a result of this an association of Norwegian general agents together produced a set of ethical directives in 1871. These stated that the agents of the shipping companies should not make derogatory statements about the other companies. Owners of the larger companies also agreed on minimum prices for the crossing. A list of these prices was to be posted in a visible location at agency offices.

Rules and Regulations governing Agent activities, points 2 and 3:

2. No agent is permitted, either directly or indirectly, to sell tickets at a lower price than those listed, nor must any agent make any offers, promises or expectations regarding a reduction in price. On the contrary, agents are required at all times to explain to the emigrants in a clear and understandable manner that all agents are obligated to adhere to predetermined prices and conditions.

3. Agents are forbidden to speak, write or conduct themselves in a discourteous or unbecoming manner toward other members of the Association and other Lines or their representatives, nor must they be personally engaged in making public any such derogatory statements.

After this, ads concentrated for the most part on how quick and comfortable the ships were. A new law was passed in 1869 concerning the transporting of passengers to foreign parts of the world. This law was intended to protect the emigrants against trickery from the agents. According to the law, the agents had to have police authorization and the shipowners had to provide a considerable sum of money to guarantee the wellbeing of the passengers. According to the law, the agents had to sign a written contract with the emigrants. The contract was to specifically state everything included in the ticket. Before the contract was valid, it had to be presented to the police chief who then signed the contract with the agent and the emigrant. At the same time the emigrants were entered in the police register of emigrants including details about the agent or line responsible for the contract. This prevented the agents from making false promises to the emigrants. If the agents were guilty of breaking the law, they could lose their credentials. Their authorization had to be renewed annually.

Paragraph 6 in the "Law concerning control of conveying emigrants to foreign destinations":

The agent is to produce a written contract for each emigrant that includes specific and detailed information concerning predetermined conditions about the manner and to which destination the emigrant and his clothing shall be transported, whether the, and the extent to which the shipping line is obligated to maintain the emigrant if the ship, because of misfortune, should have to remain in port, or his further transportation in case of shipwreck or if, for health reasons, he be unable to complete the journey, as well as what compensation of the emigrant is paid or shall be paid. Any other conditions, that for practical reasons should be given further clarification, shall be left up to the King to determine. Any agreement that the journey be paid for in total or in part by the performance of labor following arrival at the foreign destination is null and void, and will result in a fine for the agent in accordance with paragraph 10. The contract shall be presented to the Chief of Police and must bear his signature, the document then being handed over to the emigrant who, if possible, should personally be present to receive it.

From the mid-1870s and until the first decade of the following century, the most common travel route for Norwegian emigrants was via Hull, England. There were steamship connections to Hull from several Norwegian ports. The Wilson Line carried passengers from Norway to England. The company gained a near monopoly position in the feeder service of emigrants between Norway and the British Isles. This was due, in part, to the fact that agreements were reached between the Wilson Line and other large shipping companies. Because of its size, the Wilson Line could offer continuous and regular service, and Norwegian companies were unable to compete. There were also a number of Norwegian emigrants who traveled from Germany to New York on German vessels. It was especially between 1880 to 1895 that a number of Norwegians traveled via Hamburg. They left Norway with ships of Det Søndenfjelds -- Norske Dampskibsselskab, and from Germany with the Hamburg-American Line, or North German Lloyd. In 1893 The German Hamburg-American Line attempted to establish a direct route between Kristiansand and New York, but this lasted only till 1896. Then another attempt was made in 1904 under the name Scandia Line. A very few emigrants traveled via Holland. The German and Dutch companies transported only a small fraction of the Norwegian emigrants.

The majority of those who emigrated from Norway were from rural districts. The first lap of the journey to America was therefore from the rural community to the closest city. The cities from which the greatest number of emigrants departed were Oslo, Kristiansand, Stavanger, Bergen and Trondheim. At times, there were a number who left from smaller towns.

Most often tickets were ordered beforehand, and many received tickets from America. But every passenger had to go via the shipping company agent, whether they had received a ticket or not. The emigrants had to be in town no later than one day before departure. When the emigrants showed up, they were usually received the agents or their assistants. These met as a group on the dock or at the railroad station, and guided the emigrants to the shipping company office. Here the baggage was marked and made ready for loading on the steamship. The ticket was paid for and the contract gotten ready. Then it was off to the police station where the contract was signed and names entered into the emigrant register. Men who were of age for military service (age 22-36) had to provide documentation that they had permission to emigrate, or discharge papers, military authorities. Male emigrants below the age of military conscription had to present a certificate signed by their local district commissioner. Both men and women had to present their certificate of baptism.

When all the formalities were completed, the emigrants had to find lodgings for the night. Many of the agents had agreements with specific hotels and boarding houses, and arranged lodgings for the emigrants. They also exchanged currency and made out foreign drafts. On the day of departure the emigrants had to gather outside the office of their respective agent. From there they were led to the ship and assigned a place on board. There was usually a large gathering of people on the docks who had come to bid farewell to friends and relatives. The trip from Oslo to Hull normally took three days and from Trondheim about four days.

The interior of the early steamships was not very different from that of the sail ships. This was the case both for the ships to England and to America. The steerage was usually divided into two or three large sections. On board the Wilson Line steamer S/S Angelo, the bunks are described as long two-story shelves. These were not deep enough for a person to stretch out completely. An inspector who carried out an inspection during the crossing from Oslo to Hull in 1881, reported that the emigrants slept in whatever clothing they were wearing. He also saw several people who slept with their hats on, and no one removed their shoes. One man even slept in his raincoat. The food the emigrants required during the crossing was included in the ticket. Toilet conditions were nothing to brag about and were often up on deck. The crossing over the North Sea could be very rough in bad weather, and many people suffered from seasickness. As a rule, passengers were not permitted on deck when it was dark or during bad weather. Reports state that even passengers accustomed to the sea would get sick, not because of the sea, but because of the terrible stench of vomit. On some of the ships there were spaces between the deck boards along the sides of the ship so the deck could be hosed down and the impure water removed with pumps. On other ships, carbolic acid was poured on the deck that was then covered with sawdust. The sawdust was removed and replaced each day. Both ventilation and illumination was generally better on the steam ships than on the sail ships.

The steerage on a North German Lloyd steamship, [old postcard]

The menu on board the ship to England was basically the same as the menu on board the ship to America. Passengers could drink all the water they wanted. Advertisements from the Anchor Line promised that passengers would receive the following during the entire passage from Norway to New York:

". . . so much of the best food, properly prepared, as they could eat, namely: Breakfast 9 a.m.: Tea, coffee or hot chocolate, sugar, bread and butter or biscuits and butter. Dinner, 1 p.m.: Soup, beef or pork with potatoes, with plum pudding on Sundays. Supper 6 p.m. Tea, coffee or hot chocolate, sugar, bread and butter or biscuits and butter."

An emigrant who traveled with this company described the food on board in a letter he sent home in 1869:

". . . for supper there was always at sea sweet tea without milk in it and dry hard biscuits or Ship's bread, and the same for breakfast. There was butter, but it was so rancid that we could not digest it. For dinner, meat, but their was no taste to the soup or for us Norwegians it had a disgusting taste, and the meat was as salty as herring. One day we had salted fish with a dash of soup, but it was inedible for most of us and it was just to dump our portions into the sea.

Another emigrant wrote the following account about his journey to America with the steamship Idaho from Liverpool in 1869:

" . . . You can imagine what an unpleasant journey it was with over 1,100 emigrants crammed together; most of us were treated worse than wild animals. We hardly ate anything at the start of the journey since we are not pigs, but when we began to understand the situation and our own provisions were not enough, we had to accept the food that the pigs ate . . . when we walked on deck the muck went over our shoes and into the meat container; one should wash it but the Irishmen had washed their children's messes and night pots first . . ."

The Wilson Line had departures from Oslo on Fridays and arrived in Hull on Sunday evening or Monday morning. The emigrants were met in Hull by agents representing the companies where they had purchased tickets. As a rule, there were passengers on the same ship that were to travel on from England with ships belonging to various companies. Passengers were responsible for seeing to it that their baggage got on the right ship. There were organized gangs of baggage thieves in port that they had to guard against. In Hull the emigrants were taken to large waiting halls provided by the shipping companies. They usually received food and drink while they waited for the train that was to take them further. To avoid problems, the authorities in Hull wanted the emigrants sent off as quickly as possible. From Hull there were train connections to Glasgow, Liverpool, London and Southampton. The most common route went via Liverpool, about a seven-hour train ride. The transatlantic steamers departed from England on different days, and the emigrants often had to wait several days in England. They were housed at emigrant hotels owned by the shipping companies. The stay in England was regarded by most as the greatest disadvantage of the journey since this cost money and unnecessarily lengthened the time of the trip. In large cities such as Liverpool, the emigrants could also be exposed to many dangers. From Liverpool the ships went to Ireland to pick up yet more passengers. From there the ships headed for the open seas.

A number of large steamers were always docked in the port city of Liverpool and there was always a great deal of activity. The harbor area was well suited to emigrant traffic. When the Norwegian emigrants boarded the large steamships, they were suddenly brought into contact with emigrants from other parts of Europe. Cultural differences made it difficult to live so close together, and the relationship between passengers could sometimes be strained. There are also accounts stating that passengers were sometimes treated badly by members of the crew. Language could also lead to problems, but most ships had a Scandinavian interpreter on board. It was usual that ethnic groups were kept separate from others and placed in their own quarters. Unmarried men had a section of their own, and unmarried women were either placed in their own section or together with families. It did happen that families were separated on board because passengers were divided according to sex. Passengers had to supply their own bedding. This method of transporting steerage passengers, remained more or less the same until the end of the 1890s. As competition grew between the shipping companies, conditions gradually improved for the passengers, yet strangely enough, there are few complaints from the emigrants concerning conditions on board these ships. The reason may be that they were not accustomed to much comfort. As the companies built new ships, standards were raised and conditions improved for the emigrants.

When the Danish Thingvalla Line opened for traffic in 1880, they advertised that the ships had Scandinavian crews and food, and that they sailed directly from Copenhagen to New York via Christiania (later Oslo) and Christiansand (Kristiansand). This company grew in popularity, but experienced a number of misfortunes -- which was not exactly good for business. In addition to several minor accidents, the S/S Hekla (1) sank near Færder in 1883, the S/S Thingvalla and the S/S Geiser collided in 1888 with a loss of 105 lives, and that same year the S/S Danmark was shipwrecked. The worst catastrophe was the loss of the S/S Norge in 1904, when 604 persons lost their lives. The ships of the Thingvalla Line were not as fast or as comfortable as were those of the competitors, with the result that the Thingvalla Line never posed a serious threat to the other transatlantic lines. In 1881 the White Star Line presented its newest ship, the S/S Arabic. The S/S Arabic was built by Harland & Wolf Ltd. in Belfast, and had a tonnage of 4 368 gross tons, almost twice as big as the steamship Thingvalla. It had three decks and three masts, so that it could use sails if necessary. The combination of sail and steam was common up to the close of the century. Two engines with a total of four pistons had 550 horsepower. The English White Star Lines ship could cross the Atlantic in 7 to 8 days, while the ships of the Thingvalla Line took twice as much time. The steerage on board the Arabic was divided into three sections, each with its own entrance. There were water closets in all the sections. Single men were quartered on the lowest forward deck, and there was a salon between them and the deck for married couples. The section for single women was aft in the ship. They were completely separated from the other passengers and there were matrons who kept an eye on them. There was also a physician on board and a sick bay in each of the sections. There were, in addition, two sick bays on the top deck to be used for passengers with contagious diseases. The beds were made of canvas and could be removed when not in use during the day, making room for tables and chairs. The sections were each equipped with a little kitchenette where the passengers could make tea or coffee. Provisions were made to care for seasick and bedridden passengers. There was a separate promenade deck for the steerage passengers forward and one astern on the ships, while the amidships section was reserved for saloon passengers. There was a conscious effort to separate the different classes of passengers.

The price for steerage passage on an Allan Line ship from Trondheim to Quebec in 1867 was 40 speciedaler (160 kroner). In 1878 the same ticket cost 175.69 kroner. The Cunard Line from Trondheim to Boston on third class cost 166 kroner in 1900, while in 1903 the same ticket cost 113 kroner. The price of a second class ticket was 228 kroner. Prices also depended to some extent on the type of ship.

The Lusitania and Mauretania
The following is from a printed advertisement produced by the Cunard Line representative in Trondheim: The world's largest and fastest ships
To regain "the blue ribbon" from Germany, the Cunard Line launched two new ships in 1907, and it is no exaggeration to say that the construction of the Lusitania and Mauretania represent the most splendid piece of work ever completed in the history of the art of shipbuilding. They are therefore regarded as two of the world's greatest wonders. Not only are these ships the largest, fastest and -- for passengers -- the most luxuriously equipped steamships that exist. In utilizing steam turbines for locomotion, the Cunard Line has made an important step forward, in that all the fastest steamships on the Atlantic, up to now, have been equipped with piston engines.

The dimensions of these ships are: Length 790 feet (275 meters), width 88 feet (28 meters), depth 60 feet (19 meters), displacement 45 000 tons, register 23 000 tons. Anyone who has not seen such a steamship can hardly imagine what colossal concepts these figures represent, but the following details may help to illustrate the enormous size of these ships: They have 4 smokestacks each 155 feet high and 24 feet -- more than 7 meters -- in diameter. The two masts are each 216 feet, or 2 feet longer than the entire length of the Britannia, Cunard's first steamship.

This is an old postcard showing the S/S Mauretania compared to a football stadium. It was used to promote the ships of the Cunard Line, by showing their greatness. The impressing dimensions of the ship was used as a guaranty for safety.

In addition, each steamship has 10 storeys with decks that are divided into 175 rooms. The watertight doors can also be shut from the bridge where the captain stands 100 feet above the waterline, so the ships are as unsinkable as a ship can be. 4 million steel rivets have been used in the hull, with a total weight of 500 tons = 50 000 kilograms. Two electric elevators facilitate movement between decks, and there are also 6 elevators of the same type for mail and baggage. On board each ship there are no less than 1200 windows and 5000 electric lights and 50 percent more space than has been provided for passenger comfort on any other steamship.

Each ship can carry 560 first class passengers, 500 second class passengers, and 1 400 third class passengers. Each has a crew of 800, so when the ships depart filled to capacity, they represent an entire little city and have more inhabitants than most of our towns. To drive this floating city on its way with 25 knots, which is top speed, powerful machinery is required, and to achieve this there are 8 steam turbines with a total force of 70 000 horsepower. To attain an increase in speed of 1.5 knots over the fastest of the German ships, machine power had to be increased from 40 000 to 70 000 horsepower.

Cross-section of the Cunard Line giant steamship S/S Aquitania built in 1913. Emigrants who traveled on third class were placed in the lowest decks of the ship, just above the cargo hold, where there was room for 2 052 passengers. The second class passengers were placed on the decks above them, with room for 614 passengers. First class passengers were placed in the upper decks, where there was room for 597 passengers. Both first and second class passengers could enjoy luxurious saloons. The ship weighed 45 647 gross tons and had a length of 901.5 feet and a width of 97 feet.

Passengers who traveled on third class could choose between cabins for two, four, or six persons. The ships were now equipped with separate dining rooms, smoking compartment for the men, a saloon for ladies, a party room with a piano, covered and open promenade decks, sick bay and drugstore. Later there were also playrooms for the children. The size of the ships gave them greater stability in rough seas so that seasickness was no longer so great a problem as before. The ships had doctors, interpreters and both male and female crewmembers. Hygiene and food on board were considerably improved. Both the captain and the ship's physician inspected the ship each day, and passengers with complaints could express them directly.

In 1904, the Thingvalla Line was taken over by Det Forenede Dampskibsselskab (DFDS) in Copenhagen. The line operated under the name Scandinavian America Line. Most of the older and smaller ships of the Thingvalla Line were gradually replaced. The company still had to struggle with its bad reputation, and even its newest ships were much smaller and slower than the ships of the English and German lines. Even though standards on transatlantic ships were considerably better than what they had been, progress was slower on the ships that brought Norwegians between Norway and England. Many were therefore happy to see the establishment of The Norwegian America Line (Den Norske Amerikalinjen) in 1913. This line could offer direct service from Oslo to New York via Kristiansand, Stavanger and Bergen. It had never been so easy to get from Norway to America. The standards on board the Norwegian vessels were according to the needs of the emigrants. The Norwegian America Line became a stiff competitor for the large, foreign lines. The establishment of a line with direct service between Norway and America signified a tremendous improvement for Norwegian emigrants. Unfortunately, this did not come into being until the end of the period of mass migration. From 1913 the number of emigrants decreased, and during WW1 very few made the trip. Following the war the USA introduced new immigration laws that led to a further decrease in emigration. Immediately following the war there was a new wave of emigrants, but emigration never reached the heights of the previous century. An historical epoch came thus to an end, but the ships continued to sail. The new market for the great passenger liners was cruise traffic. It was also more common for people in America to visit the Old Country. The Norwegian America Line continued to keep ties open between Norway and America for many decades after the end of mass emigration. In that way it became for many years an important channel for cultural exchanges between Norway and America.

Four berth stateroom on the Kristianiafjord & Bergensfjord. The picture is from a booklet by the company. To see more pictures go to the NAL page and click on the photo album links at the bottom of the page.

This article is based up on an article I wrote for the Norwegian National Library for their web presentation "Det Løfterike Landet". The original article was shorter, and was translated to English by Harry T. Cleven. I will make some further additions to the article in the time coming. Børge Solem February 2001